Microbiology Notes free essay sample

His masterpiece sculptor â€Å"David†, was made between 1501 and 1504 C. He was a French sculptor and poet D. Created the famous fresco on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Rome Branches of Microbiology Medical Microbiology Industrial Microbiology Environmental Microbiology Agricultural Microbiology Legumes +N2-fixing microorganisms Microorganisms have important role in cycling plant nutrients (N, P, C, S) Cattle production depends on rumen microorganisms Biotechnology Food production (Dairy products (ogurt, cheese) sauerkraut, pickles, sausage, bread, beer, wine etc. Bioremediation (detoxification by use of microorganisms Genetic Engineering (manipulation of genes in order to create new products) * Who started Microbiology? Antoine van Leeuwenhoek a Dutch merchant The first person to see microbes as being ALIVE! Father of bacteriology * * What Leeuwenhoek could see? Different shapes of bacteria Red blood cells, spermatozoa, plant and animal cells Magnification of his micro scope was 32X Robert Hooke’s Microscope Compared to Leeuwenhoek’s Robert Hook introduced the compound microscope (objective lens + ocular lens) Robert Hook (1665) reported that the smallest biological structural unites were â€Å"little boxes†-cells CELL THEORY- all living things are composed of cells Golden Age of Microbiology (1830-1900) Scientists searched for answers to the following questions: Is spontaneous generation of microbial life possible? What causes fermentation? What causes disease? How can we prevent infection and disease? Is spontaneous generation of microbial life possible? Aristotle proposed spontaneous generation-living things can arise from non-living matter Toads and snakes could be born of moist soles Maggots could arise from corpses Francesco Redi’s Experiment, 1670s Flies with meat 1765 Lazzaro Sallanzani conducted experients to disprove the doctrine of spontaneous generation biolied infusion, hermetically sealed the container. We will write a custom essay sample on Microbiology Notes or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Nly a small crack in the neck was sufficient to allow penetration and development of â€Å"animalcules† in the infusion. Nicholas Appert patented his invention and established a business to preserve a variety of food in sealed bottles-canning Finally! Arguments about spontaneous generation resolved by Louis Pasteur Read about Louis Pasteur’s experiment How he really did it? Pasteur’s S-shaped flask kept microbes, but let in (Swan Neck Flask) Joseph Meister First person to be treated by Louis Pasteur against rabies Pasteur’s Discoveries Performed the most convincing experiment disproving the theory of spontaneous generation Role of yeast in alcohol fermentation Devised the process of pasteurization and basis of aseptic techniques Disease of vine-cold be prevented by heating the wine for a short time to a temp of 55-60 degrees Celsius The first preventive treatment for rabies What causes disease? Pasteur developed germ theory of disease, but had no proof†¦began working on Anthrax, but could not get a cure Robert Koch Studied causative agents of disease Gave the first proof that bacteria causes disease (by isolating the anthrax bacillus in pure culture)-germ theory of disease Perfected the technique of isolating bacteria in pure culture-solid media-boiled potato Discovered Mycobacterium tuberculosis-the organism causing the tuberculosis. Tuberculin-substance used for diagnosis of tuberculosis Excreted into liquid culture and if there is an allergic reaction than the person has tuberculosis Introduced the staining procedure for M. tuberculosis (acid fast staining) First to stain bacterial smears Discovered the causative agent of cholera 1905 received the Nobel Prize for Medicine Koch’s postulates Identify criteria for proving that a specific type of a microorganism causes a specific disease: 1. The microorganism should be constantly present in a diseased animal 2. The microorganism must be cultivated in pure culture 3. When inoculated into a healthy animal, such microorganism should cause characteristic disease symptoms 4. The microorganism should be re-isolated from the experimental animal, and it should have the same characteristics as the original microorganisms Ignaz Semmelweis e implemented that if doctors wash their hands they would reduce spreading germs Joseph Lister (1827-1912) Father of modern surgery Became aware of Louis Pasteur’s work (rotting and fermentation) Applied antiseptic (carbolic acid) treatment for prevention and care of would infection Introduced the procedure of disinfection of operating rooms Edward Jenner Performed the first vaccinat ion against small pox Chemotherapy (treatment of disease by using chemical substances) the first antibiotic was discovered by accident was penicillin Alexander Fleming-1928 discovered penicillin Produced by mold: Penicillin Crysogenum Commercial production started in 1945 in the US Problems with Antibiotics Can be toxic to humans Spread of new varieties of resistant microorganisms Development of techniques that facilitated further progress of microbiology Pure cultures (clone) is a culture consisting of only one type of microorganisms Use of Petri dishes Aseptic techniques Bacteria as distinct species Development of microbiology in the 20th century Bacteriology study of bacteria. Mycology study of fungi. Fungal infections rising Parasitology study of protozoa and parasitic worms Immunology study of immunity. Virology study of viruses. Cannot be seen by a microscope, you need an electro microscope (Dimitri Iwanowski, reported on the presence of infectious agents much smaller than bacteria. He discovered the tobacco mosaic virus) Recombinant DNA technology fragments of foreign DNA can be incorporated into bacterial genome The Establishment of the Scientific Method Scientific method-based on an experimental system It includes: 1. Observation and description a phenomenon 2. Formulate a hypothesis to explain the phenomena 3. Performance of experimental tests (to confirm hypothesis) If supported hypothesis becomes theory Joseph Lister He was born in 1827 in Upton, England Attended London and Edinburgh Universites Joseph Lister was educated in Edinburgh. Edinburgh is located in Scotland Scotland is an independent state Scotland is part of Great Britain Scotland is a province in France Scotland is part of Canada Why Chemistry? Bacteria subcellular structures complex molecules simple molecules atoms Atoms Building blocks of molecules Subatomic particles Shell Electrons rotate about the nucleus in their orbitals Nucleus Protons Neutrons Atoms do not carry charge Electron Orbitals and Shells Electrons rotate around the nucleus in orbitals (pathways) Low level energy electrons Nearest to the nucleus 1st shell-1 orbits (2e) 2nd shell- 4 orbitals (up to 8 e) 3rd shell-9 orbitals (up to 18e) Elements Each element contains characteristic number of protons and electrons-position in the table There are 118 known elements Elements in groups of similar properties Biologically important atoms 11 elements are of biological importance The Fathers of the Periodic Talbe Dmitri Mendeleev Lothar Meyer Isotopes Have a different number of neutrons; same physical properties Some isotopes have unstable nuclei-emit energy-radioactivity Significance in Biology Tracing atoms and molecules in metabolic reactions Diagnostic purposes Sterilization (gamma irradiation) Video Notes: Charges of protons and electrons are equal in magnitude Isotopes are identical to each other but sometimes vary in properties Carbon 12 and 13 are stable Carbon 11, 14, 15 are not Radiactivity Henri Becquerel-mysterious rays * Molecules Two or more atoms combined form a molecule-a new compound has new characteristics Compounds are formed when atoms are, donate or lose electrons Number of electron in outer shell-valence Determines the readiness of an element to react with other element How the atoms bind together? Through the chemical bonds Covalent bonds Ionic bonds Hydrogen bonds Covalent Bonds Bonds between atoms that share electrons Electrons are not shared equally- change of polarity Hydrogen molecule H2 Water molecule is polar Ionic Bonds Electrons are transferred from one atoms to another When valences complement each other Ex- NaCl (table salt) 7 is not stable Ionization Dissociation of molecules (atoms) into charge particles: Cations (+) Anions (-) When added to water, crystals of NaCl get ionized-Na+ Cl- Electrolytes-conduct electricity: acids, bases, salts When two electrodes are put together Each ion becomes hydrated-surrounded by water molecules Hydrophilic molecules attracts water Hydrophobic molecules repel water (benzene- a non-polar molecule) Hydrogen Bonds Attractive forces between nearby molecules Ex. Water molecules; proteins and DNA Represented with dotted line Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Oxidation-losing electron Reduction-receiving electrons Chemical formulas Atomic symbols and number of atoms in a molecule: H2O Do not provide information on position of bonds between atoms C6H12O6 glucose and fructose Reactions Synthesis reaction Equation must be balanced Decomposition reactions Larger molecule is broken up in two smaller units 2H2+Ox 2H2O Solutions Mixture of substances solute- (solid, gaseous, liquid) in the solvent (liquid) Water is the most common solvent * * Acidity, Alkalinity, pH * Solutions can be acidic or basic H2H+ + OH- ionization of water H+H+ + OH- access of H+ acidic pH pH=_log [H+] pH1 =0. 1 mole H=/liter ph 2+0. 01 mole H+/liter Inorganic and Organic Compounds Compounds can be: Inorganic ( do not have C and H combined) NaCl, CaCO3†¦ Organic (CH4)-complex compounds with C boned to other atoms The Chemistry of Carbon Carbon is the fundamental element of life- Why? Molecular skeleton Have 4 electrons in outer orbital-can form 4 bonds Most often forms stable bonds with C H O N S and P Functional Groups Carbon binds to other atoms via molecular groups-functional groups Functional groups determin characteristics of a molecules Carbodroxyl-fatty acids, proteins, organic acids Amino- proteins, nucleic acids Macromolecules Smaller molecules (monomers) are assembled into larger compounds-macromolecules (polymers) **Table 2. 3 and Table 2. 4 ** Classes of Carbohydrates Monosaccharide Have 3-7 atoms Pentose (5 Carbons) Hexose (6 carbons) Glucose Disaccharides Sucrose Polysaccharides Glycosidic Bonds Bonds between two sugars Carbons from two molecules are bonded via oxygen with release of H2O molecule Function of Polysaccharides Provide structural support (cell wall) Nutrient and energy storage Some examples Cellulose Agar Chitin-present in insects Peptidoglycan-polysaccaharide makes up cell wall of bacteria Glycocalyx- surrounds bacterial cell and provides protection Lipids Not soluble in water Classes of Lipids Triglycerides Phospholipids Steroids Waxes Synthesis of Triglycerides Glycerol bonds with three molecules of fatty acds through ester bonds Dehydration (need more) Biological Significance of Lipids Storage material (triglycerides) Membrane lipids Phospholipids Hydrophilic and hydrophobic portion Cholesterols Provides support to the cell wall of some bacteria Proteins Composed of amino acids Assembled together through peptide bonds Peptide: short chain of amino acids Polypeptide (proteins): long chains of amino acids Protein structure determines its functionality: Primary-long chain of amino acids Secondary Tertiary Quaternary- complex molecule * * Peptide Bonds Bond between amino group of one AA and carboxyl groups of another AA Proteins are made up of 20 AA Look at list the Waterstreet gave us The Nucleic Acids DNA and RNA; informational molecules Contain genetic information Composed of nucleotides Nucleotides composed of: Bases Sugars Phosphate The Double Helix of DNA Held together by nucleotides ATP: the energy molecule of cells Adenosine triphosphate contains Adenine Ribose Three phosphates Gives off energy when the bond is broken and one phosphate group removed Marie Curie Pioneered research on radioactivity Theory of radioactivity Discovered two elements: polonium and radium The first female professor at the University of Paris The first Nobel st Nobel prize- in physics 2nd Noble prize in chemistry Marie Curie was born in France England Poland Austria General Laboratory Techniques-5 I’s Inoculation Incubation Isolation Inspection Identification Inoculation Introducing a sample (the inoculum) into a container with a nutrient medium The medium contains appropriate nutrients that sustains the growth of microorganisms Some micro bes have to be inoculated into a living organism Isolation: Separating one species from another Obtaining pure culture Cultures composed of cells arising from a sing cell-PURE CULTURES Obtaining Pure Culture Streak plate method Petri plate Material picked up from somewhere and put at the tip of inoculation needle Dilution method Transfers to build bacteria in the petri plates Types of Media Physical State Liquid Solid (agar) Chemical composition Synthetic Nonsynthetic (complex) Functional type General purpose Enrichment Selective Differential Measures to be taken when working with microbiological media Needs to be sterilized Prevent contamination Synthetic media Known chemical composition (NaNO3/I; glucose 2g/l) Non-synthetic (complex) media Contains chemically undefined components (Pepton, beef extract†¦) Enrichment medium- supports the growth of a specific group of microorganisms (Ex. N2-fixing) Selective media-favor specific microorganisms and inhibits the others (methylene blue inhibits the growth of Gram+ bacteria) Differential media-contain substances that permit detection of microorganisms with specific metabolic activity E. coli (red) Incubation Microbiological cultures are placed temperature-controlled chamers-incubators Temperature: 20-40 C Pathogenic: 37 C MICROSCOPE-The Instrument Microscopes are the instruments that magnify the cell (object) to extent at which the cell details become visible Leeuwenhoek’s microscope had one lens Robert Hooke invented the compound microscope Microscope- The Basic Principle The specimen is magnified with the objective lens (real image) This image is magnified by ocular lens (virtual image) An enlarged and inverted image is received by retina Basic features of microscopy Magnification Resolution Contrast Magnification Magnification is the result of light refraction Mag=Objective powerx Ocular lens power Ex: Objective lens: low power lens=10x Ocular lens power=10x Mag=10x 10=100x * * Your objective lenses are color coded 4x- red 10c-yrlloe 40x-blue 100-black Use of immersion oil with high power objectives Immersion oil has the same refractive index as the glass Between glass cover slip and slide Used only with 100x lens magnification Refractive index is a measure of relative velocity at which light passes through material Resolution Resolution (resolving power) is the ability of a lens to distinguish two adjacent points as two separate objects. In light microscopes resolution is 0. 2 micrometers (limit 2,000x) High resolution-further apart Low resolution-closer together Which images can be resolved? Lower than 0. 2 micrometers Bigger than 0. 2 micrometers can be seen with microscope How does the resolution depend on the wavelength? Resolving distance=wavelength of light/w xNA (numerical aperture) The shorter the wavelength- the greater resolution Contrast Specimen must contrast with their background This can be achieved by: Changing the refractive index of specimen Stain the specimen Refractive index- mesures of light bending ability * * Types of Microscopes * What is the illuminating sources? * Light Bright field Phase contrast Fluorescent Dark filed Differential interference Confocal * Electron beam transmission scanning Light Microscopy-Compound Microscope Optical microscope parts: Illuminator Condenser Objective lens Ocular lens (eyepiece) Dark-Field Microscopes Best for observing pale objects Only those light rays scattered by specimen enter objective lens Specimen appears light against dark background Increases contrast and enables observation of more details Bright filed vs. Dark field Microscopy When light reaches the ocular lens dark objects are seen easier Fluorescent Microscopy Fluorescence is the ability of certain substancces to absorb short wavelengths of light and emit light at a longer wavelength Fluorescence Microscopy Sputum mucus Same mucus showing Mycobacterium tuberculosis stained with a fluorescent dye Immunofluorescence Diagnostic procedure: Antibody produced against a specific bacterium Conjugate antibody and fluorochrome Treat the unknown bacterium If suspected bacteria are indeed present they will bind the tagged antibodies Ultraviolet (or near) light is used as a light source Phase Microscopes Provides better contras and more details in the cell The light rays that hit he specimen travel a different path than the rays, which do not hit the specimen Bright field looks very light Phase looks better Differential Interference Microscopy (Nomarsky) Uses two beams of light Higher resolution -D images Confocal Microscopy Uses fluorescent dyes and UV lasers to illuminate the sample An image is taken in a single plane that is not thicker than 1. 0micrometer Resolution is increased by up to 40% because emitted light passes through pinhole aperture Computer constructed 3-D images Bacillus cereus Live cells-red Dead cells-green Composite image of 10 images Each 0. 2 micrometers thickness HIV (in green) travels down the microtubules (in red) Toward the nucleus (Blue) Bacteria are seen in light microscopes Electron Microscopy Two types of electron microscopes: Transmission (TEM) Scanning (SEM) Source of illumination electron beam Advantage of using EM Resolving distance=wavelength of lig/2 Wavelength of visible light=400A Resolution (light microscopy): 2000 A (0. 2 micrometers) EM uses an electron beam as a source of illumination (1000,000 times shorter wavelength than visible light) Resolution (EM): 2 A Magnification up to 100,000 Transmission electron microscope (TEM) Image formed by the elctrons transmitted through a specimen A specimen is a thin section of material (fixed, embedded, and sliced-never alive) TEM is used for objects smaller than 0. 2 mm * The first electron microscope Constructed by Ernst Ruska in 1931 He demonstrated that a magnetic coil could act as an electron lens In 1986, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his many achievements in electron optics Ruska was born in Heidelberg Heidelberg is city in France Heidelberg University is one of the oldest Universities in Europe Heidelberg is a city in Germany B and C are the correct answers Scanning electron microscope Used to study the surface of the cell/tissue Image formed by the electrons reflected from the surface 3D view image is obtained on TV screen Preparation of specimen for optical microscopes

Ebonics - A Language essays

Ebonics - A Language essays Since the advent of man, he has tried to communicate with each other to get their thoughts and ideas across to the other. The earliest man used some form of communication and it was much later that scripting was invented. Today the earliest writing that has been discovered are those of the Sumerians and the Indus Valley Civilization. With increasing time and age languages became an important part of communication and many were recognized for the languages they spoke. Today there is a diversity of languages all across the globe. Arabic, Chinese, Persian, English and French are the most commonly spoken languages. In schools the national language of a country is taught and other languages are not really given any importance. However people do learn different languages and make them able to communicate with a person who speaks a different language. Native Americans had their own form of communication and when people from Europe started moving in and became dominant in America, the offici al language was chosen to be English. Blacks were brought in America in the great trans-Atlantic shift and were used as slaves. Their oppression was relieved later on and the black culture came into existence. Although they distorted English, and gave rise to new terminologies, Ebonics today are widely used all across the United States by the youth. IS EBONICS OR BLACK ENGLISH A LANGUAGE? Ebonics was a term formulated by a team of Black scholars and defined the way the descendants of the slaves talk. It is thus according to them a language spoken by the slave descendants. Language expresses identity and with Ebonics the Blacks aimed to identify themselves, their culture and heritage. Language variations are also absolutely necessary in the struggle for liberation. Ebonics forms a link between the Africans in the United States and the Africans all across the world. Many mistake Ebonics to be broken English or slang that is spoken by Black kid...

Innovation and Technology Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 1

Innovation and Technology Management - Essay Example Compared to recent decades, the current business environment has become highly dynamic and unpredictable. It has customers that are highly demanding and operate in a highly competitive environment. In order to counter these challenges, businesses have been developing new products and services the offer better experiences for its respective consumers. It is important to realize that the success of a business depends on a multiplicity of factors, besides human resource management, technology and innovations (Kleinman 2009, 13). This paper examines the importance of innovation and technology in businesses with emphasis on how these two processes have influenced the success of Apple, a company that has been known for its success in the design and sale of various consumer technologies. Businesses are started with an aim of achieving the set goals and objectives. In this case, the owners and managers have to be creative and devise strategies that can enable them to produce and distribute their goods to their identified markets in the most effective way. Many successful businesses in the world have been founded on carefully developed strategies and approaches that understand the market needs of the people. One of the ways of managing this is having a market research, which is essential in providing information on competitor strategies and the various ways in which the business can satisfy the needs of its market (Thompson 2008, 65). Developing market-oriented products and services is important for the business in order to avoid wastages in the production and distribution of its goods and services. Human resource management is critical in the success of businesses since, it empowers human capital in the business to develop policies and strategies to increase the business’ competitive advantage and market position. Human resource management involves the processes concerned with recruitment, hiring and development of business employees to make it

Arthur Kinoy, People's Lawyer Did he Succeed in Combining Law & Essay

Arthur Kinoy, People's Lawyer Did he Succeed in Combining Law & Conscience - Essay Example And he was quite active in behalf f the Southern civil-rights movement f the 1960s. Together with partners William and Michael Kunstler, he helped form what they called the "people's KKK." In fact, his book Rights on Trial, a memoir f his exciting and turbulent career, is subtitled The Odyssey f a People's Lawyer. Kinoy argued before the Supreme Court six times, winning five f those appeals. The case he considered most significant was United States v. United States District Court, in which the Nixon Administration tried to defend Justice Department wiretapping f antiwar protesters without a warrant, on the grounds that the President had the "inherent power" to ignore individual constitutional rights if he thought national security was at stake. Kinoy helped establish the now-extinct Citizen's Party, and ran on its ticket for a New Jersey State Senate seat in 1981. He didn't come close to winning, but says the campaign was a successful organizing tool. Kinoy believed people's movements had made a lethal tactical error by not talking about "the conspiracy f the power elite" to eviscerate the Constitution. Whether in the courtroom or in a debate, Kinoy was a feisty and brilliant thinker who was as relentless as he was ingenious. Most f his autobiography makes it appear that he went through his life as lawyer never pretending to e objective, never less than totally convinced about the justness f the causes he represented and the innocence f his clients. That posture, however, gives rise to some other questions. Most f Kinoy's important cases - Dennis v. United States, the White Panthers case, the Julian and Anna Rosenberg case, the Adam Clayton Powell case, the Chicago Seven case - involved some f the most significant political events f this country's 20th century history. The causes represented some f the most serious rifts in the democracy f the United States. Given Kinoy's frank admission that he was not detached from the causes in which he was involved, one might wonder how good the lawyering is when the lawyer and the client are equally passionate about the political cause that gives rise to the case. How clearly can a passionately involved lawyer describe the workings f the judicial system when the judges and opposing layers are by definition part f a conspiracy against justice and truth Kinoy indeed dealt with some troublesome players - Roy Cohn f the McCarthy era, Judge Julius Hoffman in the Chicago Seven case and Judge Harold Medina in the Dennis case - but he also presented many cases to the Supreme Court and to other tribunals, and even he finds it hard to write off all his judges and opponents as enemies in the class struggle. So the book wavers between condemnation f a legal system that is a stocked deck and an enthusiasm for the judicial process that ultimately led to the vindication f Kinoy's clients (and position) in the Chicago Seven case f in the Adam Clayton Powell case. There is apparently no such wavering about the lawyering that stems from deep commitment to the "cause". It is passing strange that with all those high intensity cases, not once does Kinoy reflect on the legal tactics his side used. Perhaps that is asking too much,

Specifications of Damage Assessment Technique

Specifications of Damage Assessment Technique Specifications of Damage Assessment Technique Damage Tolerance (DT), is the ability of a material to function and resist fracture after a permanent change/defect has taken place for a given period of time. The Damage Tolerance is an essential attribute of a structural component, whose failure could result in catastrophic loss of life or property. Damage Tolerance Analysis The DT addresses two points concerning an initially defected/damaged structure. First, it determines fracture load for a specified defect size. Meaning that the load where material failure occurs, when a specified defect size, exists is determined. Second, it predicts the required length of time for a sub-critical defect to grow to the size that causes fracture at given load. In this case, it is assumed that the defect can extend and propagate in a sub-critical manner1. The determination of fracture/failure load for a defected component will be the primary target of the DT analysis that will be carried out for the projects needs. To apply the DT method, the fatigue target stress levels need to be calculated. The last can be derived from the ultimate allowable stress levels. The ultimate allowable stress levels can be basically determined by the loading conditions applied to the specified component. In every structural case, the specific target stress value for any given primary structural component is adjusted for its specific geometry and material properties. Therefore, the prediction of the required length of time for a sub-critical defect to grow to the size that causes fracture at given load will be attempted to be determined. Of course to achieve predicting the required length of time for a sub-critical defect to grow to the size that causes fracture at given load, the respective material data should be available. Damage Tolerance Analysis Procedure It is known that a structure usually fails by one or combination of failures. These failures can be elastic /inelastic deformations, buckling, fatigue or accidental impact, etc. In the flow chart of Figure 4.1 a possible procedure that might be adopted to carry out the numerical DT analysis of a structural component is depicted. This flow chart, as it can be seen, covers the case of static and fatigue load. Despite of this, each case can be assessed and examined individually if all the required inputs are available. 1 Damage Tolerance Analysis of Aero Structural Components, TATA Figure 4.1: Damage Tolerance Analysis Procedure It is intended to develop a fully parametric numerical model of the structural (metallic and/or composite) component for the DT modelling using the aid of suitable Finite Element software. The work plan is to write a scripting code in the FE softwares parametric design language to allow defect geometric characteristics (e.g. defect location, damage size etc.) and external data (e.g. geometric characteristics, material properties, loading and boundary conditions of the component) to be automatically inserted to the numerical model of the structural component. The aim is to develop a code with the following features: easy data insertion by uploading the geometry of the component, apply loading and boundary conditions to the DT modular unit, and data import for different types of components with minimum modifications. Moreover, it will be attempted to achieve a sufficient mesh density for the Finite Element model (refined FE model) that will provide adequate accuracy by minimizing the discrepancies of the results in a prescribed range. At the same time, it is desired that the model will not consumes excessive computational time and effort for its solution. It will be attempted to incorporate an adaptive mesh routine for increasing the mesh density at the defect regions according to certain condition/criteria, such as the minimum energy condition. This technique will be employed in case that complex geometry is about to be analysed. Eventually, a post-processing macro-routine will also be programmed to process the results from the analysis solution. A possible way for verifying whether the structural component can operate with defect or repair is required is by calculating the Margin of Safety (MS) for the examined component. Using the maximum stress (von-Mises) obtained from the numerical analysis, static margin of safety (MS) obtained for limit and ultimate loads can be calculated respectively. By employing the suitable failure criteria a possible reduction of the components structural strength will be defined. Required inputs for Damage Tolerance Analysis In this section the inputs that will be required for carrying out the numerical structural analysis are listed in the following paragraphs. A brief explanation about each required input is also presented in order the reader to comprehend the necessity of each characteristic. Components geometric characteristics The geometric characteristics of the component can be separated in three distinguished categories, which both of them have to be defined with accuracy. These categories are: components   geometry   (the   geometric   characteristic   of   the   reference-no   defect- component), type of defect, and geometry of the defect. And they are explained in more detail below. Components Geometry Initially, the geometric characteristics of the component are required for carrying out a numerical analysis that will assess the DT of the investigated component. In more detail, the geometric characteristics of the investigated component-in case of a flat plate- are its width, length, its thickness etc. For the case where a more complex geometry needs to be investigated, CAD drawings will be required. It is preferred to provide EXIS with the drawings in electronic format in a neutral file (e.g. .igs or .stp format) to allow the smooth insertion of these file to the FE software. Additional inputs will be required, depending the case, for de-featuring the CAD model and eventually generate an equivalent simplified FE model. It is expected the last to have less elements/nodes and hence less computational demands. Typeofdefect The type of flaw detected by the Non Destructive procedure (e.g. crack, delaminations, etc.) will be an advantage to be known and given as input before developing the FE model for the DT analysis, Figure 4.2. It will be helpful to know the defect type DT Analysis of the structural component will examine, so the appropriate modelling procedure and discretization method in the defects region will be used. Delaminations(single-andmulti-level)Freeedgedamages(delaminations, notches,loosefibers,etc.) Figure 4.2: Type of defect to be analysed DefectGeometry It is essential when performing a numerical structural analysis of a defected component to know the geometry of the defect. Basically in this case the geometry of the defect is part of the geometry of the analysed and investigated component. Therefore, the   non-destructive method (PA or IRT) will initially detect the damage and generate an image. The image processing procedure will allow to calculate the size of the defect and its location. The geometric characteristics that are expected to extract are the area, width (w), height (h) and the coordinates of the defected area into the component. An estimation of the through thickness damage will be also required for the FE model. The last is expected to be provided by the software that will perform the non-destructive testing. It might be necessary to model the defect using an equivalent area of a circle or rectangular, in order to avoid modelling complex defect shapes, such as of Figure 4.3. In case that this approach is utilized, a validation procedure will be performed. Figure 4.3: Geometrical characteristics of the defect Material mechanical properties To carry out a numerical DT analysis of a component, it is necessary to insert the appropriate material models into the FE model to simulate the exact behaviour of the component and its strength. In case the metallic components are examined, the material properties that need to be available are the following: Modulus of Elasticity (E), and Poisson Ratio (ÃŽ ½). Regarding composite components, monolithic CFRP is the main category that is believed that is about to be investigated, since a wide range of currently flying aircrafts, such as the Airbus 3XX family is using them. Therefore, in case that monolithic composite material the material properties that define the material model will be inserted to the FE model. The following material properties can adequately define the behaviour of the material model. Material properties of the ply Eij, Gij and vij, where Eij Gij and vij is the Young, Shear modulus and Poissons ratio in the i,j direction respectively. The subscripts i, j can take values from 1 to 3 and they are used for defining the material coordinate system, Figure 4.4. Ply thickness. Stacking sequence and number of plies, Figure 4.4. Axial Strength of laminate in 1, 2 and 3 direction. Shear Strength of laminate in 12, 23 and 31 direction. If the material inputs are not available from the designer of the component, then they will be taken from the open literature. Figure 4.4: Representative stacking sequence of a CFRP composite and material coordinate system Characteristic example of a set of three dimensional failure criteria is the maximum stress failure criteria. They are presented below (ÏÆ'ij are the calculated layer-stress components in the (ij) direction and the denominators are the ultimate strengths in the corresponding direction). Maximum  Stress  Failure  Criteria: The nominator of each ratio is the maximum stress value that is developed in the structure. The denominator is the strength of the material in each direction. Whenever the ratio is less than one then no failure occurs, otherwise material failure exists. It desired not having any failure when ultimate load is applied to the component. Restraints and Boundary conditions The stress state of a composite structural member is strongly related with the way this member is attached to the rest of the aircraft structure. Knowing that in the area of the defect/damage stress concentration exists, the correct definition of the boundary conditions is essential. To this end, the boundary conditions of the structural component must be provided in order to apply the respective degrees of freedom/ constraints to the FE model. Loading conditions For carrying out the DT analysis, the loading conditions exerted to the composite component need to be defined. It is essential for the numerical analysis the applied load to be known; hence it is a required input. In more detail the limit load that is applied to the structural component needs to be known before running the analysis. Additional inputs Additional inputs might be required to perform the DT analysis of a specific component with a specific type of defect. In that case additional inputs might be needed.

Tom Brown’s Schooldays

Schooldays Different Interpretations Tom Brown’s Schooldays by Thomas Hughes was first published in 1857, yet it is still currently used in several literature classes. The book is a phenomenal piece of literature that has motivated several people into creating their own adaptations in a media format. The main protagonist in the story is Tom Brown, a young thirteen year old boy with great Christian morals before attending Rugy School. The antagonist and bully of the story is Harry Flashman who is corrupted by the power he receives from his father’s influential role in funding the school.The Story follows Brown’s transformation from a kind and gentle young man into a cruel boy with no remorse. The main influence on Brown’s metamorphosis was Flashman’s constant harsh treatment of weaker and younger students attending Rugby. At the end of the story Brown takes a look back at the time he spent at Rugby and is forced to question his morals. The 2005 movie adaptation was very well scripted and contained most of the basic themes that were portrayed in the book. After doing an acceptable amount of research about the movie I discovered that it was filmed at the actual Rugby School described in the book.I was surprised to see that most of the cast members fit my description of what the characters should look like from reading the book. Watching the movie and reading the book were similar in the way of developing an emotional bond between the characters and the audience. An example of this would be my hatred toward Flashman because of his harsh treatments on the weaker children that couldn’t defend themselves. Although the movie was quiet of an emotional thrill ride there were significant differences from the original story.It is an extremely difficult task to depict the same story in a novel onto a movie or TV screen, and Tom Browns Schooldays directed by Dave Moore was no exception. The movie had left out two significant parts of the story that were crucial to the introduction and conclusion of the novel. The beginning of the movie started off with Brown’s father talking to him about not loosing his Christian morals and sending him to Rugby. In the novel it begins with Brown’s pleasant life before Rugby School, this helps the reader establish Tom’s personality and experiences. I was disappointed when I idn’t see this in movie because it helps the reader develop a sense of Brown’s past and compare it to his life at Rugby. The conclusion of the movie ends with Brown as one of Arthur’s pallbearers at his funeral. It was interesting to see this in the movie because in the original novel Arthur never died and actually helps the other students realize their harsh methods, inevitably changing their ways. There was also an added scene in the movie that never occurred in the book. The sex scene involving Flashman and Sally which I found quite pointless to include in the movi e.After comparing the novel and movie it is hard not to notice the differences but the main theme of a young man realizing his moral obligation is still portrayed. I enjoyed reading and watching the story but overall I have to say the novel was much better because the movie kept on straying away form the original story. I understand that Dave Moore was trying to make the movie original because of the previous movies before, but it felt like a different story in the introduction and conclusion of the movie. Tom Brown’s Schooldays by Thomas Hughes is a wonderful work of literature that will still be widely used in future.

Health Care Project Essay

Team B has chosen prescription drugs for our health care reform project and how our current economic status is influenced. We will give ideas and solutions to show how to decrease the drug pricing. Ways that can be implemented toward a solution. Pharmaceutical company’s need to amend their business practices from a high profit, low development model to a moderate profit, moderate to high development model. Structures and regulation that will explain the competition, barriers to entry, and regulations. Taking a look at drug pricing from different perspective, like cost, research, and development, marketing, and the manufacturing of pharmaceutical drugs. The Monopoly of pricing who is involved, and the curves associated with it. Price discrimination how it changes who’s involved and what the criteria are for groups as well as pricing for individuals. How cost of co pays differ from brand names to generic and how the drug formulates come into play. How to make the system work for everyone that will amount to higher than just a 30-day supply, pharmacy assistance programs, local charity programs, and low income opportunities. Better ways to enforce existing legislation, vote in new legislation, and regulate prices across the board. The above affects the insured and non-insured American’s. For most American households, paying for health care to include prescription drugs and medical bills has been one of the hardest financial strains out there. According to a report published by (Consumer Reports, 2012), many have cut back on other household expenses or taken potentially dangerous measures with their health to afford their medications. The most affected population is the working-age Americans who do not have prescription drug insurance coverage. More than half of the people who completed the survey requested by Consumer Reports took one or more prescriptions had to reduce other household expenses or make changes in how the general population manage their finances. These reductions included how much they spend on their groceries, entertainment, activities with the family, and using their credit cards to purchase medications. The problem  was more severe with younger people than elderly people age 65 and older. â€Å"84 percent of them said they had to resort to such measures† (Consumer Reports, 2012) as previously listed. Prescription drugs or better yet the cost of prescription drugs is a discussion in the country of importance. The rise of the cost of prescription drugs is of important to many people in the United States and plays a huge role in the economics of health care. The elevated pricing of prescription drugs has become a focal point of politics and in need of some governance. Even though healthcare and prescription drugs are seen as a private sector issue, the discussion of some socialist measures put into place is a definite need for the economy. Some of those ideas include price-capping expensive drugs and even importing drugs from Canada. Healthcare and prescription drugs have been privatized; however, the government has a huge influence on them both. According to the Centers for Medicaid and Medicare Services, the government, including state, and federal, has contributed more the 2.7 trillion in 2011. This shows that we have hidden, or more politically correct, blurred the view of a socialist healthcare system. The currently health care system with health care reform has caused confusing for co nsumers. Many people are struggling to pay for the high cost of medication they are on. Some of the patients have to take a different type of medication, which is called alternative medication because their insurance denied paying for it in addition; the process to get approval from insurance takes longer time and more paperwork back and forth from doctors and insurance companies. In reality, health care consumers are the victims, they suffer from their medical illnesses, and they suffer for the high cost of prescription drugs. Health care reform in theory is helping more than forty million people to have health coverage, the demand curve shifts to the right. The important matter at the present time is the supply to cover that many people to have a quality care whereas the economy is gradually recovering. The unemployment rate is not changing much, it is still relatively high. When the prescription drug cost much of our income, seeking for other solution becomes a must do from consumers, they tend to dismiss their prescriptions or buying medication from online market, w hich may cause bad health than curing purpose.